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MAURITIUS

The island had for a long time remained unknown and uninhabited. It was probably visited by Arab sailors during the Middle Ages, and on maps of about 1500, it is shown by an Arabic name `Dina Arobi'. The Portuguese sailor Domingo Fernandez Pereira was probably the first European to land on the island at around 1511. The island appears with a Portuguese name `Cirne' on early Portuguese maps, probably because of the presence of the Dodo, a flightless bird which was found in great numbers at that time. It was another Portuguese sailor, Don Pedro Mascarenhas, who gave the name Mascarenes to the group of islands now known as Mauritius, Rodrigues and R‚union. The Portuguese did not stay long however as they were not interested in these islands. In 1598, a Dutch squadron, under the orders of Admiral Wybrand Van Warwyck, landed at Grand Port and named the island Mauritius, in honour of Prince Maurice Van Nassau, "Stathouder" of Holland. However, it was not until 1638 that there was a first attempt of Dutch settlement. It was from here that the famous Dutch navigator Tasman set out to discover the western part of Australia. The first Dutch settlement lasted only twenty years. Several attempts were subsequently made, but the settlements never developed enough to produce dividends and the Dutch finally left Mauritius in 1710. Abandoned by the Dutch, the island became a French possession when, in September 1715, Guillaume Dufresne D'Arsel landed and took possession of this precious port of call on the route to India. He named the island Ile de France, but it was only in 1721 that the French started their occupation. However, it was only as from 1735, with the arrival of the most illustrious of French governors, Mahé de La Bourdonnais, that the Isle de France started developing effectively. From that year until 1810, it was in charge of officials appointed by the French Government, except for a brief period during the French Revolution, when the inhabitants set up a government virtually independent of France. During the Napoleonic wars, the Ile de France had become a base from which French corsairs organised successful raids on British commercial ships. The raids continued until 1810 when a strong British expedition was sent to capture the island. A preliminary attack was foiled at Grand Port in August 1810, but the main attack launched in December of the same year from Rodrigues, which had been captured a year earlier, was successful. The British landed in large numbers in the north of the island and rapidly overpowered the French, who capitulated. By the Treaty of Paris in 1814, the Ile de France which regained its former name `Mauritius' was ceded definitely to Great Britain, together with its dependencies which included Rodrigues and the Seychelles. On the constitutional plane, the Council of Government which was first established in 1825, was enlarged in 1886 to make room for elected representatives. The new council included 10 members elected on a restricted franchise. It was not until 1933 that the Constitution was again amended in a significant respect. The Council of Government was replaced by a Legislative Council composed of 19 elected members, 12 members nominated by the Governor and three ex-officio members. General elections were held in August 1948 and the first Legislative Council met on 1st September 1948. Following constitutional conferences held in London in 1955 and 1957, the ministerial system was introduced and general elections were held on 9th March 1959. Voting took place for the first time on the basis of universal adult suffrage and the number of electors rose to 208,684. In 1961, a Constitutional Review Conference was held in London and a programme of further constitutional advance was established. It was followed in 1965 by the last constitutional conference which -paved the way for Mauritius to achieve independence. After general elections in 1967, Mauritius adopted a new constitution and independence was proclaimed on 12 March 1968. Mauritius achieved the status of Republic 24 years later -on 12 March 1992.

200 Rupees - 1971

KM-039 - 15,56 g

Mintage - 750

This coin was issued to commemorate independence.  The obverse has a bust of Queen Elizabeth II (b1926-) with the legend QUEEN ELIZABETH THE SECOND 1971.  The reverse features a scene with the legend MAURITIUS INDEPENDENCE around the top and the denomination 200 RUPEES at the bottom.

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MEXICO

The first people to inhabit Mexico arrived 20,000 years before Columbus. Their descendants built a succession of highly developed civilizations that flourished from 1200 BC to 1521 AD. The first ancestral civilization to arise was that of the Olmecs (1200-600 BC), in the humid lowlands of southern Veracruz and Tabasco. By 300 BC they were joined by the Zapotecs of Oaxaca, and the temple center of Izapa (200 BC to 200 AD). By 250 AD the Maya were building stepped temple pyramids in the Yucatán Peninsula. Central Mexico's first great civilization flourished at Teotihuacán between 250 and 600 AD, to be followed by the Toltecs at Xochicalco and Tula. The Aztecs were successors to this string of empires, settling at Tenochtitlán in the early 14th century. Almost 3000 years of civilization was shattered in just two short years, following the landing by Hernán Cortés near modern-day Veracruz on April 21, 1519. Primary sources suggest that the Aztecs were initially accommodating because, according to their calendar, the year 1519 promised the god Quetzalcóatl's return from the east. The Spaniards met their first allies in towns that resented Aztec domination. With 6000 local recruits, they approached the Aztecs' island capital of Tenochtitlán - a city bigger than any in Spain. King Moctezuma II invited the party into his palace and the Spaniards promptly took him hostage. By August 13, 1521, Aztec resistance had ended. The position of the conquered peoples deteriorated rapidly, not only because of harsh treatment at the hands of the colonists but also due to introduced diseases. The indigenous population fell from an estimated 25 million at the time of conquest to one million by 1605. From the 16th to 19th centuries, a sort of apartheid system existed in Mexico. Spanish-born colonists were a minuscule part of the population but were considered nobility in New Spain (as Mexico was then called), however humble their prior status in Spain. By the 18th century, criollos (people born of Spanish parents in New Spain) had acquired fortunes in mining, commerce, ranching and agriculture, and were seeking political power commensurate with their wealth. Below the criollos were the mestizos, of mixed Spanish and indigenous or African slave ancestry, and at the bottom of the pile were the remaining indigenous people and African slaves. The catalyst for rebellion came in 1808 when Napoleon Bonaparte occupied most of Spain - direct Spanish control over New Spain suddenly ceased and rivalry between Spanish-born colonists and criollos intensified. On September 16, 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a criollo parish priest, issued his call to rebellion, the Grito de Dolores. In 1821 Spain agreed to Mexican independence.  But in 1821, Colonel Augustin de Ituribe declared himself emperor, but was in turn deposed by General Santa Anna (n 1797-d1876)  in 1823 and later executed. In 1823, Mexico was made into a republic, but the southern part of the territory split off to form the United Provinces of Central America. By 1862, Mexico was heavily in debt to Britain, France and Spain, who sent a joint force to Mexico to collect their debts. France decided to go one step further and colonize Mexico, sparking yet another war. In 1864, France invited the Austrian archduke, Maximilian of Hapsburg, to become emperor of Mexico but his reign was bloodily ended by forces loyal to the country's former president, Benito Juárez, a Zapotec from Oaxaca. The republic was restored though there were many years of dictatorial leaders amd single party government until the present day when the dominant socialist party PRI was repudiated in national and many state elections.

20 Pesos - 1866-Mo

KM-389 - 33,84 g

Mintage - 8.274

This very impressive coin was the only gold issued under Emperor Maximilian of Mexico (b1832-d1867).  He was born Archduke Fredinand Maximilian of Austria. He was installed by the French in 1864 and ruled over parts of Mexico until he abdicated in 1867.  He was executed by firing squad.  The obverse features a bareheaded bust of Maximilian surrounded by the Spanish legend MAXIMILIAN EMPEROR with the designers mark below the bust.  The reverse has the imperial coat of arms, the Spanish legend MEXICAN EMPIRE, the denomination, the date, and the mint mark of the Mexico City mint.

There are more Mexican gold coins in this section if you are interested - Page Mexico 1

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MONACO

Monaco has been inhabited since the Stone Age. Legend has it that during the Roman era a young Corsican Christian named Dévote was executed and her body placed in a boat for Africa. The boat drifted off course and ran aground on the coast of modern-day Monaco, where a state was founded in her honour. The first serious spate of building in the area - the perimeters of today's Princes Palace - was undertaken by the Ligurians, a Ghibelline Genovese dynasty which ruled Monaco in the 13th century. But on 8 January 1297 the first of the Grimaldis, François, arrived and defeated the Ligurians. In 1489 King Charles VIII of France recognised Monaco's independence. Although they were leading separate lives, and despite Monaco's brief flirtation with Spanish dominance between 1524 and 1641, France and Monaco remained close. Eventually, however, France's possessive nature got the better of it, and in 1793 the new Revolutionary regime annexed Monaco. A treaty signed in 1861 reinstated Monaco's independence, and bickering in recent decades has been restricted to the question of tax laws - Monaco refuses to tax French residents or French companies with their headquarters in Monaco. In 1962 Prince Rainier instituted a National Council elected by native Monégasques, just 16% of the population.

100 Francs - 1884-A

KM-105 - 32,26 g - 35,3 mm

Edge - Reeded

Mintage - 0,015M

This large coin has the bareheaded bust of Prince Charles III (b1818-d1889) encircled by the French legend CHARLES III PRINCE OF MONACO.  Below the bust is the designer's name PONSCARME and the mint mark A for the Paris MintThe reverse has the royal arms of the House of Grimaldi, with the date 1884 at the bottom flanked by the privy marks, and the anchor privy mark and the denomination CENT FRANCS in French at the top.  

There are more Monaco gold coins in this section if you are interested - Page Monaco 1

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MONGOLIA

Archeological digs have uncovered human remains in the Gobi and other regions of Mongolia dating back nearly 500,000 years. The name 'Mongol' was first recorded by the Chinese during the Tang dynasty (618-907 AD). At that time Mongolia was dominated by a Turkic people called the Uighurs. The Uighurs were influenced by Christianity and, after taking control of Mongolia, went on to save the ailing Tang rulers of China from an internal revolt. The Uighurs controlled most of Mongolia until 840 AD, when they were defeated by the Kyrgyz, who now live in the Chinese province of Xinjiang. The Mongols  remained little more than a loose confederation of rival clans until the late 12th century, when a 20 year old Mongol named Temujin emerged and managed to unite most of the Mongol tribes. In 1189 he was given the honorary name of Genghis Khan, meaning 'universal king'. The Genghis Khan imprinted in the memory of the west bears little relation to the Chinggis Khaan revered by Mongolians. Not only is the spelling different: to Europeans, the name epitomizes mercilessness and warmongering; to the Mongolians, it embodies strength, unity, law and order. Genghis set up his capital in present-day Kharkhorin, and launched his important cavalry - built on Mongolia's prized takhi horses - against China and Russia. By the time of his death in 1227, the Mongol empire extended from Beijing to the Caspian Sea. Genghis' grandson, Kublai Khan (circa 1216-94), completed the subjugation of China, ending the Song dynasty (960-1279) and becoming emperor of China's Yuan dynasty (1271-1368). Kublai soon realised, though, that the Mongol empire had reached the limits of its expansion. Instead of looking for more wars to fight, he concentrated on keeping the vast empire together. This was the height of the Mongols' glory: the empire stretched from Korea to Hungary and as far south as Vietnam, making it the largest empire the world has ever known. After Kublai Khan's death in 1294, the Mongols became increasingly dependent on the people they ruled. They were deeply resented as an elite, privileged class exempt from taxation, and the empire became ridden with factions vying for power. The Mongols were expelled from Beijing by the first emperor of the Ming dynasty in the mid 14th century. The collapse of the Yuan dynasty caused over 60,000 Mongols to return to Mongolia. Their unity dissolved and frequent clan warfare and a long period of decline followed. Manchu rule over China was reasonably benign until around 1800; thereafter the Qing emperors became increasingly corrupt and despotic. In 1911 China's Qing dynasty crumbled. The Mongols quickly saw their opportunity and independence from China was declared on 1 December 1911, with a theocratic government under the leadership of the 8th Jebtzun Damba (Living Buddha). On 25 May 1915, the Treaty of Kyakhta, which granted Mongolia limited autonomy, was signed by Mongolia, China and Russia. The Russian Revolution of 1917 shocked Mongolia's aristocracy. Taking advantage of Russia's weakness, a Chinese warlord sent his troops into Mongolia in 1919 and occupied the capital. In early 1921, retreating White Russian anticommunist troops entered Mongolia and expelled the Chinese. The brutality of both the Chinese and Russian forces inflamed the Mongolians' desire for independence. As the Russian Bolsheviks were steadily advancing against the White Russian forces in Siberia, Mongolian nationalists asked the Bolsheviks for help. Together they recaptured Ulaan Baatar in July 1921. The country's Buddhist leader was retained as a figurehead and the newly formed Mongolian People's Party (the first political party in the country's history, and the only one for the next 69 years) took over the government. On 26 November 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic (MPR) was declared and Mongolia became the world's second communist country. Mongolian communism remained fairly independent of Moscow until Stalin gained absolute power in the late 1920s. The Stalinist purges that followed swept Mongolia into a totalitarian nightmare, with the government's campaign against religion being particularly ruthless. In 1937 a reign of terror was launched against the monasteries in which thousands of monks were executed. It's believed that by 1939 some 27,000 people had been executed, three per cent of Mongolia's population at the time. As the Soviet regime faltered in the early 1980s, Mongolia came under the leadership of Jambyn Batmonkh, a decentraliser heartened by the Soviet reforms under Mikhail Gorbachev. Batmonkh instigated a cautious attempt at perestroika and glasnost in 1986. By 1989 full diplomatic relations were established with China. The unravelling of the Soviet Union resulted in decolonisation by default. Few in Mongolia were ready for the speed of the collapse or prepared to seize the moment. In March 1990, large pro-democracy protests erupted in the square in front of the parliament building in Ulaan Baatar and hunger strikes were held. Things then happened quickly: Batmonkh lost power; new political parties sprang up; and hunger strikes and protests continued. In May the government amended the constitution to permit multiparty elections but, ironically, rural areas voted overwhelmingly to stay under the protective shelter of the communist party. The communist party were forced into making concessions that snowballed into the election of the Mongolian Democratic Coalition on 30 June 1996, ending 75 years of unbroken communist rule.

750 Tugrug - 1980

KM-040 - 18,79 g - 28,0 mm

Edge - Reeded

Mintage - 0,032M

This NCLT "coin" was issued to commemorate the International Year of the Child.  The obverse features the arms of the Mongolian Peoples' Republic with the date 1980 below the arms and the country's name MONGOLIA in English at the bottom.  The reverse has a pair of Mongolian children dancing in indigenous apparel with the English legend INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF THE CHILD around the top, and legends in Mongol script flanking the image. The UN symbol is to the lower left and the logo for the IYC to the lower right. The denomination 750 TUGRUG is to the right in the modern Mongolian alphabet.

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MONTENEGRO

   

20 Perpera - 1910

KM-010 - 6,78 g  

Edge - Reeded

Mintage - 0,030M

This coin was issued by Montenegro, currently with Serbia a constituent piece of Yugoslavia, though it has been moving towards secession.  The obverse features the bareheaded bust of Nicholas I Petrovic (b1860-d1918) with the legend NIKOLAI B. M. KNAS I GOSPODAR CHRNE GORE meaning I think Nicholas I King and Mister of Montenegro.  Nicholas led Montenegro to independence from the Turks which he achieved in 1878.  The reverse features the royal arms surmounted by the country's name KINGDOM OF MONTE NEGRO and below the denomination and date.  

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